RESEARCH INTO THE MUSIC VIDEO INDUSTRY

INTERTEXTUALITY IN MUSIC VIDEOS

Further analysis of Intertextuality -

Intertextuality is the relationship between texts and the images portrayed. Intertextuality can be identified through conversations, thought processes of different characters represented and physical activities. Examples of this can be written in a physical format where a specific piece of text has been put in the video/clip to create a message or code to the viewer; in some cases foreshadowing ideas which leads to the over all plot and development of these video clips. In other cases, diegetic sound such as 'inside voices' or thoughts which are portrayed to a specific character and only to the audiences can construct meaning and represent intertextuality importance within music videos. The importance of this links towards the general story and basis of the music video, whether it be a concept based videos or whether it hybridises with performance based and narrative based music videos. Intertextuality will appeal to audiences because music video's thematic styles such as fashion, clothing, time settings can help the audience understand the links between intertextuality and the lyrics of the music video.

I don't really intend to use any form written intertextuality within my music video; the first drafts will simply compile of narrative and performance based representations of the more 'darker tone' style. The music videos image will be based on the narrative a lot more. 

CATEGORIES OF MUSIC VIDEOS

Performance based videos -


Many music videos include performance based music within their videos;this simply means a protagonist/ antagonist is a central figure towards a music videos. This performance based style helps to develop the narrative and takes the audience into the story or message of the music video. Performances can be based through stage performances, it contains a variety of shot types of artist performing through routine of dances, singing or physical/social activities. Naturally, music videos either tend to have a singer performing on a stage set or singularly singing as them as the central focus. Also, music videos tend to have physical performances of activities such as cross country running or basketball to illustrate a narrative and thematic conventions such as inspiration or motivation. This is also means that often link into artist 'real life' situations and represent lifestyles. This strongly hybridises with the narrative based concept which tells a story through the lyrics and has a natural structure; beginning, middle and end. A example of this is Eminem - When I'm gone. It centralises Marshell Mathers , a story which depicts the broken family relationship of the lifestyle that he once used to life, a stage performance together with a developing narrative illustrated the hybridisation of performance based and narrative based music videos.

Narrative based videos -

Narrative music based videos often depicts a story-line towards the actual content. It simply means that the music video has a narrative: a construction of a story. Narrative based music videos usually allow audiences to easily understand what is happening in the video having a beginning,middle and end.

Concept based videos -

Concept based music videos are based on a singular idea. The idea of a concept based music video is to keep the viewer focused on the singular, perhaps icon representation shown on the screen. Whether it be usual or unusual; the videos representation should completely draw the viewer. This makes it a successful music video because a main concept helps producers who are creating a video for a single purpose/message portray it through a concept. A conceptual music video also hybridises with performance based music videos and narrative based music videos which completely compiles to construct a 'whole' representation. 

THE HISTORY OF MUSIC VIDEOS

ANDREW GOODWIN AND LAURA MULVEY MUSIC VIDEO THEORY

ANDREW GOODWIN

Andrew Goodwin suggest that music demonstrates genre characteristics.

depending on the music video's purpose, and the target audience that its aiming at. Genre characteristics can vary through the speech, dialogue and the setting of the actual music video itself. This includes  bands, books/performance inspirations and related genre style music. Genre characteristics can depend on further development of music video's image and print/digital distribution. Merchandising ( the activity is promoting the sale of 'goods' to a large/niche audience) can further enhance the impact of genre characteristics and character image within music video's. Platforms such as Magazines and Film can help reproduce the reputation of music videos. This point strongly links in with genre aspects of music videos.

Andrew Goodwin also suggest that there is a relationship between the lyrics and the audio.

The representations of lyrics have a strong impact on the audio representation itself; this can be conveyed through the genre of music, whether it be rap which has a strong rhythmical construction or juts free-verse rapping. There are also other representations of lyrics, lyrics are the foundation of music songs and the lyrics help to create the genre of music videos. Links between the genre of music videos together with the word choosing strongly links to create a narrative and the image of the song.
Also, narrative construction within a music video is constructed by a link created through the lyrics and audio. For example, Maroon 5 - Maps. This song is based on a couple going to a party and the girlfriend has caught her man indulged in the lips of another woman; through  frustration she leaves the party and is eventually hit by a car. The lyrics is based on the theme of 'so i'm following the map that leads to you'. This choice of lyric continuation reinforces the bond that the main character Adam Leveine has with his girlfriend and a strong emotional link is created through the lyrics and the audio.

Andrew Goodwin's third suggestion is that there are demands of the record label which will include the need for lots close ups of the artist and the artist may develop motifs which recur across their work ( visual style).

The basic structure and usage of close ups, extreme close ups and medium shots help to construct strong representations and conveying messages. These shot types representation can illustrate themes,genres and messages to the target audience. These basic shot types inextricably blends in with other media representations such as the importance of symbolic aspects of a music video ( intertextuality ) and the sound. Sound is very powerful and has a strong impact; this reinforces the power of close ups and why they're used together with sound and intertextuality. These basics shot types together with the motifs can help represent gratification and iconic representations towards the viewer, this has a even stronger impact if the target audience is a niche audience since this allows the viewer to have a stronger understanding on why motifs are being used.  Record labels will always demand for more dominance in their industries so the artist themselves will be a more central image which helps create a vivid vision of the producers work by the visual style.

Andrew Goodwin's fourth suggestion is that there is a frequently reference to notion of looking ( screens with screens, mirror, stages , etc) and particularly voyeuristic treatment of the female body.

Frequent notion is something which isn't always used within a music video. However, when used this can be understood as a camera portraying a representation within a camera. This basically means a 'screen within a screen'.  Voyeurism treatment can be used within a mirror representation, particularity for females through feminism.  However, when comparing this representation to a more masculine point of view voyeurism can be emphasises within action films such as Kick ass ( 2010, directed by Matthew Vaughn) within the scene where the murder of Frank D'amico ). The voyeurism takes place during from 1:32 to 2:30 minutes within this clip.

Finally,Goodwin's last theory says that there often intertextual references ( to films , TV programmes , other music videos ). 

Intertextuality is very powerful towards a music video's narrative, including forms of text within a music video. Creating meaning from one text, depending on what the text actually says depends on the the producer's choices for broad or niche target audiences. These textual meanings can convey specific ideologies or messages to the audiences within TV shows and films. For example, within the film I Am Legend ( 2007, directed by Francise Lawrence ) has a strong opening scene where after a brief interview portraying a woman who presumably has found the cure for cancer; it then cuts to a a establishing shot with intertextuality saying ' THREE YEARS LATER'.  Professionally, capital letter and a bold formatting type tells the strongly tells the audience the negative outcome of this 'cure for cancer'.

LAURA MULVEY 

One part of her male gaze theory suggests that the camera / audience always represents a hetrosexual man's perspective of the scene objectifying woman.

Another part of her male gaze theory suggest that women are only portrayed as one of two possibilities. Either a virginal innocent character or a sexy ''whore'', This is called the virgin / whore dichotomy.

This point can be further understood through female representation of social class within music videos. For example, woman who are constantly objectified as sexual representations for men's arrogance/ego's are more likely to be seen in a rap music video of men who's popularity and image excels. For example, 50 Cent - Candy shop is a prime example of the powerful theory that Mulvey has stated. Also, the cinematography emphasises just that. This has been done through close ups of specific body parts of both men and woman showing a more 'seductive' aspect for men who are hetrosexual.  The cinematography also uses a couple of low angle shots together with the mise en scene ( expensive chains and expensive cars such as Lamborghini ). The camera work also strongly blends in with the song's lyrics, where both 50 Cent ( Curtis James Jackson ) says '' I can take you to the candy shop, i'll let you lick the lolly pop'' from 40-43 seconds.

This also links to Mulvey's other point where the image of a woman is portrayed as two possibilities; a virginal innocence or a 'whore'. The camera shots and the sexual representation of woman can be linked in towards women being objectified.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS

DESCRIPTION OF MY TARGET AUDIENCE

POPULAR CULTURE

UNDERSTANDING OF ADORNO  AND HEBDIGE, HOW DO THEY PERCEIVE CULTURE?

Adorno (1903-1969) was a German philosopher and critical theorist. Hebdige in the context of culture argued that " capitalism gave people the product of a 'cultural industry', which is the opposite of communism, this in his eyes has made people undeservedly satisfied ." Adorno thoroughly studied the concept of sub-culture. Since he hada background on studying philosophy ( understanding general life style issues, such as values, concerns, societies ) he understand this concept and that's why his theory still has value to the present day.

Richard ''Dick'' Hebdige is an expatriate (someone who lives outside their native country), he looked at music through the representation of 'meaning of style'. He valued what the 'resistence' of subcultures effected the society he lived in and how it would develop in the future. He argued that " punk emerged as a mainly white style when Black youth became more separatist in the 1970s in response to discrimination in British society" ( Wikipedia - Dick Hebdige ).

YOUTH AND SUB-CULTURE 

Sub-culture is a group within within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests at variance with those of a larger culture. Sub-culture is illustrated within within music through disposition and separation of cultures into groups. For example, within music videos gender and age can create subcultures through different character functions and representations ( Mise en scene/subculture image) such as clothing, ethnic relations, political representations such as the governments laws and rules and social realism which cause different sub-cultures to be created.  One sub-culture is a 'sense of belonging'. This can be shown through a genre-related music video. My group and I are creating a sub-culture of teenagers/young adults primarily females. These female audiences who are contained within this multi-ethnic American representation; is a emotional song which expresses the power of woman's emotions. 

DYER'S STAR THEORY

Dyler's 'star theory' explains how a true pop star does have a lasting significance, and  brand awareness over a longer period of time. Many of the stars populating the top forty currently have not made a sufficient sociological or cultural impact to be classified as true stars if we return to Richard Dyers’ definition.

 Stars as construction - stars can either be represented as obvious heroes or hidden stars which are usually revealed towards the end of the film. A obvious star's image can be established even before the image video is revealed, giving niche and newly interested target audience's a strong interest within what they expect. The artist's cultural background and style of music creation also has a impact on the audience. 

 “A star is an image not a real person that is constructed (as any other aspect of fiction is) out of a range of materials (eg advertising, magazines etc as well as films [music]).” Dyer, 1979

Star Theory - The theory of stars can be see also as 'genre stars, to simply put it as 'rap star'/'pop star', these iconic representations allows the audience to see how quickly a star has been promoted. Stars have their own vivid image and their importance is often showed in the audience's faces. However, not all stars are apparent, start can also range from a broad choice of character, so the representation of  a 'star' image doesn't always seem so apparent.

Even though the theory of 'star' or star representation is a automatic process, it should be fully understood and recognised, for example pop stars. Pop stars are no longevity, rock and roll is not about singing perfectly or a confident-show buzz personality. If the song is a record buying, if that artist is unique in its style, rather then a transparent offering designed, explicitly to appeal to our blander taste buds served up by a record company interested only in money. A star can have the impact needed which will determine whether a music video is a iconic symbol of successful or not.  The industry and audience links into this; they both serve another purpose for music videos and re-populate audiences. Stars are manufactured by the music industry to serve a purpose for a video which could be selling a certain amount of records or gaining popularity and building reputation. To make money out of audiences, who respond to various elements of a star persona by buying records and becoming a fan. Stars are personal building blocks to a successful music industry. Record companies nurture and shape their stars to the audience's needs- this can be seen through generations of developing TV shows, music videos and film. Character are shown to be what other people perceive to be. They tend to manufacture what they think audiences want, which is a example of proper clothing, materialistic representations and specialist helping starts in their weak spots.

SEAN KINGSTON - BEAUTIFUL GIRL - HIP HOP

The story line of the song shows Sean talking to one of his pears ( who appear to be friends ) talking about his crush on a girl. The video then features him in a American fast-food store where many characters around his age appear to come in order to socialise and to interact with one another. The song starts outside the shop; the song continues it portray him singing inside the shop. The song continues to show him on a table clapping with many other teenagers as he sings about his experience where he 'moves down south' in another store as he song ends with him singing with a quire.

The song starts with a medium shot of Sean Kingston using his natural voice ( with no sound editing for the first 17 seconds ). This natural diegetic sound flows and calmly introduces the viewer into the video. The camera movement is pretty basic and standard, as continues medium shots and wide angle shots have been used to naturally to show the setting of this music video. The setting such as the dinner in the beginning of the scene has been easily established by the audience, and such cinematography is very useful. The mise en scene is expressed through the prop usage such as the clothing worn by what appears to be the fashion for young Americans between the ages of 15-20 years old. The facial expressions seem to be distinctively optimistic and the usage of characters within the age group of 15-20 is very empowering in representing youth as a image of this music video. This strongly links in with the representation of character function and age representation as young adults' lifestyles are generally summed up within this  music video.

Social and political ideologies can be linked in towards not just the narrative, but also through Sean Kingston's representation of love and relationships. Social inequality and national issues within this age group that all confine the natural issues of teenagers/young adults by showing relationships with girls/boys to be filled with frustration, cheating and disinformation. Political aspects of the law and government come in this representation when Sean said '' it was back in 99, watching movies all the time and ohh  I went away for doing my first crime''' ( 2:01-2:04). This form of verbal intertextuality illustrates the political side of this music video.

The genre of this music video is Hip-Hop consisting of rhythmical expressions together with a sense of 'rap', a more creative style of music. This ambient soundtrack together with a multiple usage of beats dropping in after every few scenes in this music video emphasises that this music video is hip-Hop based. Intertextuality communicates in a form of an emotional faze (common through teenagers) who experience difficulties within finding partners and other loved ones. This links in with audience perception as the Stuart Hall's theory allows the viewers of today's society to accept the representation of the music video when targeting a more niche audience, normally between the ages of 15-24.

 Andrew Goodwin's theory can strongly be applied here as a strong relationship between the visual imagery and the music itself; this is shown through the cinematography and the intertextuality I mentioned beforehand. Also this video emphasises the importance of commitment within relationships and creates a form of emotional aspiration for the younger viewers who watch this. Lastly, Laura Mulvey's theory also very powerful in this video as females continuously have been show in this video as an 'object' of love and a form of a heterosexual man's desire. No binary opposites are shown apart from gender separation through the theme of love.

AKON - RIGHT TO LOVE - RNB

The simplistic narrative implicates Akon picking up his girl in a car and driving around the sea shore whilst they view the beautiful scenery and showing  their love for each other; this shows the basic narrative through the lyrics and the scene's setting.

This music video starts of with 3 camera movements showing the destination that Akon is arriving in, a long shot portraying the vehicle, then a wide shot taken from a left-sided angle and another wide shot portrayed from the right side this time. As soon as the vehicle stops, simultaneously the beat of the music drops and the diegetic soundtrack is introduced. A continued usage of long shots and medium shots are portrayed  to show the representation of love and the focal point of this music video. This combo of diegetic sound and cinematography has been used to portray the iconic representation of relationships and happiness.

 The obvious political ideology is represented through the environment and the culture; this ideology also links in with the mise en scene. First of all, not just the protagonists which are displayed, Akon and his girlfriend symbolise the cultural tranquility of their surroundings. Within the opening seconds of the song as Akon's girlfriend was walking past a medium shot of a old man reading a magazine was portrayed through similar dress codes telling the viewer the political and economical distribution of wealth range evenly. This means that the people within this music video live similar lifestyles and the beat of the music makes the viewer feel calm and relaxed. This blends in with the continued usage of medium,close ups and fade away editing shot types used to portray the beautiful surroundings of this video. The cinematography is very powerful for the cultural representation of this music video.

Character representation is very stylistic and the mise en scene empowers the cultural image of the environment that is shown. Children within the streets shown by wide shots and medium shots portrays the average lifestyle of children, emphasising intertextuality in a form of physically-social activities, which makes the audience feel as if this video is filled with cultural youth. The genre of this music video is RNB, the rhythmical beat and the natural tempo of this song ( ambient sound ) reinforces that this is a RNB style song.

Stuart Hall's theory in this case can be represented in either of the 3 ways, however depending individually on the audience's style and taste in music, i'd say the target audience for this song would be both male and females, aged between 14-35.  Also, Andrew Goodwin's theory indefinitely shows a relationship between the visual content and the music itself, A parallel soundtrack has been used. Also, the tone and atmosphere crystalises the beauty of the song's message within this video( the message being that if you love someone you shouldn't care about what others think). Lastly, Laura Mulvey's theory can definitely be used as a woman ( binary opposition ) is connotated as a central figure for a heterosexual character within this music video. This has been shown continuously through the cinematography together with the natural lighting and the ambient sound.

GREEN DAY - WAKE ME UP WHEN SEPTEMBER ENDS - ALTERNATIVE ROCK

The music video begins with a young man and woman who are together in a wide, open and grassy area. The viewers can straight away see that there is a connection between both of these characters. Intertextuality is introduced straight away along with a extreme long shot with a sign positioned on the ground near the grass saying 'wake me up when September ends'. This introduces the song to the audience.

The mise en scene is also very clinical to the approach and the gender profile shown. A normal teenager growing up in the what appears to be urban representation of American. Both Jamie Bell and Evan Rachel wearing standard summer clothing which relates towards setting of the music video makes the content seem more realistic. Through out the music video the narrative of a young man who appeared to have cheated on his girlfriend portrays the negative qualities of a relationship. Juxta- position cinematography has been used to show a double narrative between the singer and the girl and the boy as it shows them going through a troubled situation. The following scene then takes the viewer to a battle field where the boy has become a soldier as the girl is portrayed to be alone as the voice over of her saying " you'll always have some here for you. I'm never gonna leave you" - 6:55 to 7:01.

The song is the fourth single from the group's 7th studio Idiot American (2004) and became a number one hit in Czech Republic, Belgium and in the UK. This links in with audience perception as a number of audiences may have already experienced such  a tragic representation of love, and it definitely relates towards the both genders between the ages of 14-25.  Again, Stuart Hall's theory of audience perspective is important, in this case I believe that the audience's social lifestyle especially in 2015, allows them to agree with what is portrayed in this music video.

Andrew Goodwin's theory of the 5 key aspects are also dominant here as cinematography, visual relation, technical representation ,narrative performance and star theory are portrayed in their own unique way. The image of the protagonist slowly fades into Jamie being an antagonist as the plot is revealed further into the song. However, Laura Mulvey's theory of men objectifying woman is shown not through physical actions but emotionally, as this video portrays a woman's heart being objectified.

EMINEM - BEAUTIFUL - CHOSEN GENRE - RAP

As the diegetic soundtrack simultaneously comes in together with a wide shot from behind Marshel Mathers (Eminem ), strong cinematography continues to be used. For instance, after the wide shot(portraying) it cut to another wide shot from the right side of the video's location setting, a high angle shot type was then used. Such cinematography captures the beauty of the theme and lets to audience quickly see the setting of the music video.

The video portrays Marshel walking into a church where the majority of the music video is shown, he walks into several destinations within the church, the open entrance of the space portrays Marshel along with a black woman walking along with a suit case; a large amount of the video is also shot in a room with a bed on it and a staircase setting. Also, near the ending of the video it shows Marshel walking in the streets to what appears to be a soon reconstructed baseball stadium.

 The church symbolically showing the viewer that religious values interlock with music and that spiritual representations links in to the message of 'beauty'. This clearly represents that the introduction to the video has been used to quickly draw the viewer into the video's environment and shows that the setting has importance. As a continuation of wide shots, long shots and medium shot portraying Eminem are shown, a long shot form behind is also portrayed of a black woman carrying a suit case; at which the beat then drops towards Eminem rapping.  A rather dark style of editing has been used, this dark editing has been used to portray human inequality and blends in with the parallel soundtrack portrayed. The mise en scene also inextricably blends in with  the symbolic representation of the church and the rap music; this is shown through the natural dark clothing portraying the elusive image of 'rap' and 'arrogance'. For example, the typical baggy trousers, the grey top and the common jacket shown. Also the lighting coming in through the windows in this church also portray the 'heavenly' representation of the setting symbolising hope, beauty and faith.

The content that is physically being created is not shown, however, it has been put together with a video and Eminem rapping to complete a wonderful music video. He is the sole character represented and this individuality portrays the image of beauty and faith. Also, religious ideology can be linked in with the message and emotional expression of this music video. The religious ideology shown by music being a form of spiritual believe through the positive message being sang by Eminem is signified through the intensive beat of the song and the rhythmical tone. This tells the audience that the video has a rap basis. When referring to intertextuality, the relationship between the text tells the audience that regardless of how you look or how others may see you as, you're always beautiful, despite any form of negative oppression.  Audience reception is very powerful towards the message that the video is trying to portray. For instance, Stuart Hall's theory suggest three perspectives of human intake. The first is dominant reading (the reader fully accepts the text and it becomes apparent), The negotiated reading ( the reader only partly accepts the content and broadly accepts it ) and the oppositional reading where the reader's social positions makes him deny the text being portrayed ). Through social appeal and person interest, this theory tells the audience that a more niche target audience is aimed at rap rather then every person being into this kind of music. The music video is aimed at males ( possibly females ) aged between 14-50 years of age.

The Andrew Goodwin theory consists of 5 key details. Thoughts of the beat/music ( listening to the message the music is illustrating, such as the message of believing that you're beautiful and how the images link into the magical lighting ). The second is the relationship of the song with the visual content (parallel sound track). This means that there is a strong connection between the imagery being shown and the words of the actual artist; in this case when he says "Lately I've been hard to reach, I've been too long on my own" creating a direct link between the spacious surroundings and given off the feeling of solitude. The third is technical aspects of the video such as editing and props used ( the bed in a room in the second part of this video). The fourth is narrative and song performance, and the last one is star image or protagonist which is clearly shown in this video to be Eminem. Also, Laura Mulvey's theory has no power in this video as only a male is shown and no sexist/sexual preference over woman is shown in this video. As a matter of fact, only one woman who was appropriately dressed was shown in this video cancelling her theory out.

50 CENT - CHOSEN GENRE - RAP

The video begins with 50 cent and Mase talking to a older French gentlemen about purchasing shoes. This is followed by the camera movement which is very interesting in this video as the a extreme long shot of the setting is shown with textual representation, saying 'MONACO' in big, white capital letters. This is followed by a camera panning in multiple positions along with a fade away shot and a usage of medium and natural long shots to portray the scenery has been used to draw the reader into the beautiful setting of the song. Through out the song ,  fade away shot types have been used together with the camera stopping showing prices together with materials (mise en scene) illustrating the focus of the rich cultural representation. Also, the mise en scene is very powerful as higher class adults which are shown as either A/B on the social demographic illustrates the theme of money and power. This is shown through the mise en scene by the clothing of 50 cent and Mase. For example, the representation of their big furry jackets, chains and a $1,000,000 diamond ring shown. The music video features 50 cent and Mase in a Bugatti cruising around Monaco and encountering rich members of the public as they manage to buy shoes, a diamond ring and get some lunch whilst meeting up with their friends. The video then continues as they're both shown driving in their car and buying a $40 dollar car rental and later that day having a social gathering and drinking what appears to be champagne; 50 cent is then shown dashing the drink away as he is unsatisfied with his service. In conclusion, both 50 cent and Mase take a joy ride around Monaco and have a really enjoyable time, showing the viewers what money can buy.

 Those around the central representation of 50 Cent and Mase, their 'friends' shown in the video and a vast majority of rich people shown in the video portrays a perfect economical representation. By perfect economical representation I mean that they're comfortably wealthy. The genre of this particular music video is rap, this is shown through the rhythmical lyrics and the flow of the rapping of 50 cent. Since the video ( if uncensored ) has inappropriate words the iconography is 18+.  The colour seems to be mostly natural with natural lighting of the area and the shots taken from in doors and outside. The genre of this music video is clearly rap through the dialect, 50 cent ( Curtis James Jackson ) has a strong rhythmical vibe. The creation of this video referencing mixed cultural power is very clear in this video. This has also been exploited through the usage of cinematography as a usage of medium and long shots portraying the differentiation of nationalities, who are also shown to be within the hierarchy ( A on the demographic ) and who are shown as completely rich within this music video.

Audience perception can be identified in numerous ways as audiences naturally in a modern society would see this style of music videos to be 'rich' and 'fruitful' as it would fill the natural desires and lifestyles of those growing up in a middle class/ poor society. The audience enjoy what they see as a vast representation of rich materialistic quantity is portrayed, its as if its almost too good to be true.
Andrew Goodwin theory can't be applied here as a typical genre theory is represented, it has central based male figures and doesn't seem to has a large impact and focus on more then 2 characters.  However, Laura Mulvey's theory is a strong example within this music video; as the dominance of male representation is illustrated. For example, a heterosexual dominant male ( 50 cent ) is portrayed when a beautiful woman. one part of her theory suggest that the camera represents a hetero-sexual male's perspective of scenes to be objectifying women. A medium shot together with the soundtrack illustrated their gaze towards the woman's beauty. Binary opposites however can't be referenced as this video doesn't show any appealing opposition-based representations or comparative  representations.